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The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch of the United States military responsible for providing force projection from the sea,Gen. Charles C. Krulak (1996). "Operational Maneuver from the Sea" (PDF). Headquarters Marine Corps. using the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces and is one of seven uniformed services. While administratively under the Department of the Navy,U.S Navy Organization — An Overview. United States Navy. Retrieved on 2007-12-30.National Security Act of 1947, SEC. 206. (a) [50 U.S.C. 409(b)]. the U.S. Marine Corps is a separate branch of the military, often working closely with US Naval forces for training, transportation, and logistic purposes.
Originally organized as the Continental Marines on November 10 1775 as naval infantry, the Marine Corps has evolved in its mission with changing military doctrine and American foreign policy. The Marine Corps has served in every American armed conflict including the Revolutionary War. It attained prominence in the 20th century when its theories and practice of amphibious warfare proved prescient and ultimately formed the cornerstone of the Pacific campaign of World War II.Warren, James A. (2005). American Spartans: The U.S. Marines: A Combat History From Iwo Jima to Iraq. New York: Free Press, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-87284-6. By the mid 20th century, the Marine Corps had become the dominant theorist of amphibious warfare.Hough, Col Frank O. (USMCR); Ludwig, Maj Verle E. (USMC), and Henry I. Shaw, Jr.. "Part I, Chapter 2: Evolution of Modern Amphibious Warfare, 1920–1941", Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal, History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume I. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Garand, George W. and Truman R. Strobridge (1971). "Part II, Chapter 1: The Development of FMFPac", Western Pacific Operations, History of U.S. Marine Corps Operation in World War II, Volume IV. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved on 2007-06-02. Frank, Benis M and Henry I. Saw, Jr. (1968). "Part VI, Chapter 1: Amphibious Doctrine in World War II", Victory and Occupation, History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume V. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved on 2007-06-02. Its ability to respond rapidly to regional crises has made it, and continues to make it, an important body in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy.John H. Dalton, Secretary of the Navy; Adm. J. M. Boorda, Chief of Naval Operations; General Carl E Mundy, Commandant, U.S. Marine Corps (November 11, 1994). "Forward...From the Sea". Department of the Navy.
The United States Marine Corps, with 186,342 active duty and 40,000 reserve Marines as of November 30, 2007,Armed Forces Strength Figures For November 30, 2007--http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/ms0.pdf is the second smallest of the United States\' armed forces (the United States Coast Guard is the smallest, about one fifth the size of the Marine Corps.) The Corps is nonetheless larger than the entire armed forces of many significant military powers; for example, it is larger than the active duty Israel Defense Forces."Israeli Defense Forces, CSIS" (PDF), 2006-07-25, p. p. 12. "United State Armed Forces, DOD" (PDF), DOD, 2006-07-25.
Colors of the U.S. Marine Corps
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The United States Marine Corps serves as an amphibious force-in-readiness. Today, it has three primary areas of responsibility as outlined in , originally introduced under the National Security Act of 1947:
The quoted clause, while seemingly a consequence of the President\'s position as Commander-in-Chief, is a codification of the expeditionary duties of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional Acts "For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps" of 1834, and "Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps" of 1798. In 1951, the House of Representatives\' Armed Services Committee called the clause "one of the most important statutory—and traditional—functions of the Marine Corps." It noted that the Corps has more often than not performed actions of a non-naval nature, including its famous actions in the War of 1812, at Tripoli, Chapultepec (during the Mexican-American War), numerous counter-insurgency, and occupational duties in Central America and East Asia, World War I and the Korean War. While these actions are not accurately described as support of naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature, using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign affairs on behalf of American interests.Estes, Kenneth W. (2000). The Marine Officer\'s Guide, 6th Edition. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-567-5.
In addition to its primary duties, the Marine Corps undertakes missions in support of the White House and the State Department. President Thomas Jefferson dubbed the Marine Band the "President\'s Own" for its role of providing music for state functions at the White House. U.S. Marine Band. U.S. Marine Band — Our History. USMC. In addition, Marines guard presidential retreats, including Camp David,Marine Barracks, Washington, DC. GlobalSecurity.org. and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX-1 provide VIP helicopter transport to the President and Vice President, using the call signs "Marine One" (when the President is aboard) and "Marine Two" (when the Vice President is aboard). By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service act, the Marine security guards of the Marine Embassy Security Command provide security for American embassies, legations, and consulates at over 110 State Department posts overseas.Marine Security Guard Battalion. GlobalSecurity.org.
At its founding, the Marine Corps was composed of infantry serving aboard naval vessels and was responsible for the security of the ship and her crew by conducting offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions, and defending the ship\'s officers from mutiny; to the latter end, their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned between the officers\' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines, as they were known at the time, were also responsible for manning raiding parties, both at sea and ashore. The role of the Marine Corps has since expanded significantly; as the importance of its original naval mission declined with changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the Naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing on what were formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced Base doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. The Marines would also develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II. Lawliss, Chuck (1988). The Marine Book: A Portrait of America\'s Military Elite. New York: Thames and Hudson. Its original mission of providing shipboard security finally ended in the 1990s, when the last Marine security detachments were withdrawn from U.S. Navy ships.
While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique combat arms, as a force it has the unique ability to rapidly deploy a combined-arms task force to almost anywhere in the world within days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat component, an air combat component, and a logistics combat component under a common command element. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater-Nichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between the U.S. military services, the Corps\' ability to permanently maintain integrated multi-element task forces under a single command provides a smoother implementation of combined-arms warfare principles.
The close integration of disparate Marine units stems from an organizational culture centered around the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support the infantry. Unlike some Western militaries, the Corps remained conservative against theories proclaiming the ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For example, Marine Aviation has always been focused on close air support and has remained largely uninfluenced by air power theories proclaiming that strategic bombing can singlehandedly win wars.
This focus on the infantry is matched with the doctrine that "Every Marine is a rifleman," a focus of Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All enlisted Marines, regardless of military specialization, receive training as a rifleman; all officers receive training as infantry platoon commanders.Milks, Keith A. (May 8 2003). Ensuring \'Every Marine a Rifleman\' is more than just a catch phrase. Marine Corps News. 22 MEU, USMC. The value of this culture has been demonstrated many times throughout history. For example, at Wake Island, when all the Marine aircraft were shot down, pilots continued the fight as ground officers, leading supply clerks and cooks in a final defensive effort.Lieutenant Colonel R.D. Heinl, Jr., USMC (1947). "Marines in WWII Historical Monograph: The Defense of Wake". Historical Section, Division of Public Information, Headquarters, USMC.
The amphibious assault techniques developed for World War II evolved, with the addition of air assault and maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational Maneuver from the Sea" doctrine of power projection from the seas. The Marines are credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine and were the earliest in the American military to widely adopt maneuver-warfare principles, which emphasize low-level initiative and flexible execution. As a result, a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected of junior Marines, particularly the NCOs, (corporals and sergeants), as compared with many other military organizations. The Marine Corps emphasizes authority and responsibility downward to a greater degree than the other military services. Flexibility of execution is implemented via an emphasis on "commander\'s intent" as a guiding principle for carrying out orders; specifying the end state but leaving open the method of execution.Lind, William S.; Col. Michael Wyly (1985). Maneuver Warfare Handbook. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-862-X.
The U.S. Marine Corps relies on the U.S. Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Marine Corps Operating Forces in Japan, Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU), smaller MAGTF, are typically stationed at sea. This allows the ability to function as first responders to international incidents. The U.S. Army now maintains light infantry units capable of rapid worldwide deployment, though they do not match the combined-arms integration of a MAGTF, nor do they have the logistical training that the Navy provides. For this reason, the Marine Corps is often assigned to non-combat missions such as the evacuation of Americans from unstable countries and humanitarian relief of natural disasters. In larger conflicts, Marines act as a stopgap, to get into and hold an area until larger units can be mobilized. The Corps performed this role in World War I, and the Korean War, where Marines were the first significant combat units deployed from the United States and held the line until the country could mobilize for war.Chenoweth, USMCR (Ret.), Colonel H. Avery; Colonel Brooke Nihart, USMC (ret) (2005). Semper fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines. New York: Main Street. ISBN 1-4027-3099-3. Of course during WWII US Army and Philippine forces conducted delaying actions against the Japanese in the Philippines.
The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia, by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the date of the Marine Corps\' "birthday". At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded, and although individual Marines were enlisted for the few American naval vessels left, the institution itself would not be resurrected until 1798. In preparation for the Naval War with France, Congress created the United States Navy and Marine Corps.U.S. Congress (11 July 1798). An Act for Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps. The U.S. Marines\' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (1801–1805) against the Barbary pirates,Richard Leiby, Terrorists by Another Name: The Barbary Pirates, The Washington Post, October 15 2001 when William Eaton and First Lieutenant Presley O\'Bannon led seven Marines and 300 Arab and European mercenaries in an effort to capture Tripoli. Though they only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines\' hymn and the Mameluke Sword carried by Marine officers.Simmons, Edwin H. (2003). The United States Marines: A History, Fourth Edition. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-790-5.
During the War of 1812, Marine naval detachments took part in the great frigate duels that characterized the war, which were the first American victories in the conflict. Their most significant contributions came at the Battle of Bladensburg and the defense of New Orleans. At Bladensburg, they held the line after the Army and militias retreated, and although eventually defeated, they inflicted casualties on the British and delayed their march to Washington, D.C. At New Orleans, the Marines held the center of Gen. Andrew Jackson\'s defensive line. By the end of the war, the Marines had acquired a well-deserved reputation as expert marksmen, especially in ship-to-ship actions.
After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a depression. The third and fourth commandants were court-martialed. However, the appointment of Archibald Henderson as its fifth commandant in 1820 breathed new life into the Corps; he would go on to become the Corps\' longest-serving commandant. Under his tenure, the Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited with thwarting President Andrew Jackson\'s attempts to combine and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army. Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the U.S. Navy.U.S. Congress (30 June 1834). An Act for the Better Organization of the United States Marine Corps. Retrieved on 2007-12-30. This would be the first of many times that Congress came to the aid of the Marines.
James Walker, Storming of Chapultepec (1847).
When the Seminole Wars of 1835 broke out, Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for service, himself personally leading two battalions, nearly half of the entire Corps, to war. A decade later, in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace, an imposing complex overlooking Mexico City. The Marines were placed on guard duty at the Mexican Presidential Palace, hence the phrase "The Halls of Montezuma" in the Marines\' hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would further see service in Panama and Asia, escorting Matthew Perry\'s East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far East. Colonel Archibald Henderson is known affectionately as "The Grand Old Man" of the Marine Corps, based on his many contributions during his 39 years as Commandant.Moskin, J. Robert (1987). The U.S. Marine Corps Story. New York: McGraw-Hill.
With their vast service in foreign engagements, the Marine Corps played a moderate role in the Civil War (1861–1865); their most important task was blockade duty. But Marines fought most battles on the coast. At Fort Wagner, Fort Pulaski, New Orleans, Galveston, Brownsville, Fort Fisher, Newport As more and more states seceded from the Union, about half of the officers in the Marine Corps also left the Union to join the Confederacy and form The Confederate States Marine Corps (CSMC)(a branch of the Confederate Navy, was established by the Confederate Congress on March 16, 1861). Without most of its officers, the remaining Marines were few and inexperienced. The battalion of recruits formed for the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) performed poorly, retreating with the rest of the Union forces. The Confederate Congress authorized the formation of a Marine Corps of its own, to be made up of ten companies, but this organization had little impact on the war.
The remainder of the 19th century was marked by declining strength and introspection about the mission of the Marine Corps. The U.S. Navy\'s transition from sail to steam put into question the need for Marines on naval ships. Meanwhile, Marines served as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect American lives and interests overseas. The Corps was involved in over 28 separate interventions in the 30 years from the end of the American Civil War to the end of 19th century, including China, Formosa, Japan, Nicaragua, Uruguay, Mexico, Korea, Panama, Hawaii, Egypt, Haiti, Samoa, Argentina, Chile, and Colombia. They would also be called upon to stem political and labor unrest within the United States.Ellsworth, Harry Allanson (1934). One Hundred Eighty Landings of United States Marines 1800–1934. Washington, D.C.: History and Museums Division, HQ, USMC. During this period, war correspondent Richard Harding Davis coined the phrase "The Marines have landed and have the situation well in hand." Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin\'s tenure, Marine customs and traditions took shape: the Corps adopted the Marine Corps emblem on November 19 1868. It was also during this time that "The Marines\' Hymn" was first heard. Around 1883, the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis" (Latin: Always Faithful).
John Philip Sousa, the musician and composer, enlisted as a Marine apprentice at the age of 13, serving from 1867 until 1872. He would later return to Corps service from 1880 to 1892 as the leader of the U.S. Marine Band (The President\'s Own). (His father, John Antonio Sousa, had been a trombonist in the same band.)
During the Spanish–American War (1898), Marines led U.S. forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the Marines seized an advanced naval base that remains in use today by the U.S. Navy. Between 1899 and 1916, the Corps continued its record of participation in foreign expeditions, including the Philippine-American War, the Boxer Rebellion in China (1899–1901), Panama, the Cuban Pacifications, the Perdicaris Incident in Morocco, Veracruz (Mexico), Haiti, Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic), and in Nicaragua. In the 1900s and 1910s, the seizure of advance naval bases entered Marine Corps doctrine with the formation of the Marine Corps Advanced Base School and the Advanced Base Force, the prototype of the Fleet Marine Force.
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, before and after World War I, Marines saw action throughout Central America, including Haiti and Nicaragua. These actions became known as the "Banana Wars" after the principal export of those countries. The experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into the Small Wars Manual. (December 17 1932). "Report on Marine Corps Duplication of Effort between Army and Navy". U.S. Marine Corps.. Contains a very detailed account of almost all the actions of the Continental Marines and USMC until 1932. It is available in scanned TIFF format from the archives of the Marine Corps University.
Georges Scott, American Marines in Belleau Wood (1918).
During World War I, battle-tested, veteran Marines served a central role in the U.S. late entry into the conflict. Unlike the U.S. Army, the Marine Corps had a deep pool of officers and NCOs with battle experience, and experienced a relatively smaller expansion. Here, the Marines fought their celebrated battle at Belleau Wood, then the largest in the history of the Corps; it created the Marines\' reputation in modern history. Rallying under the battle cries of "Retreat? Hell, we just got here!" (Captain Lloyd W. Williams) and "Come on, you sons of bitches, do you want to live forever?" (GySgt. Dan Daly), the Marines drove German forces from the area. While its previous expeditionary experiences had not earned it much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines\' fierceness and toughness earned them the respect of the Germans, who rated them of stormtrooper quality. Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden as meaning "Devil Dogs," there is no evidence of this in German records and since Teufelshunde would be the proper German phrase, it was possibly American propaganda. Nevertheless, the name stuck.Flippo, Hyde. The devil dog legend. About.com. The Corps had entered the war with 511 officers and 13,214 enlisted personnel, and by November 11 1918 had reached a strength of 2,400 officers and 70,000 men.History of Marine Corps Aviation — World War One. AcePilots.com.
Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Commandant John A. Lejeune. Under his leadership, the Corps presciently studied and developed amphibious techniques that would be of great use in World War II. Many officers, including Lt. Col. Earl Hancock "Pete" Ellis, foresaw a war in the Pacific with Japan and took preparations for such a conflict. While stationed in China, then-Lt. Col. Victor H. Krulak observed Japanese amphibious techniques in 1937. Through 1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Corps pushed urgently for joint amphibious exercises and acquired amphibious equipment such as the Higgins boat which would prove of great use in the upcoming conflict.Ballendorf, Dirk Anthony (1997). Pete Ellis: an amphibious warfare prophet, 1880–1923. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press.
In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War; the Corps expanded from two brigades to two corps with six divisions and five air wings with 132 squadrons. In addition, 20 defense battalions and a parachute battalion were set up.Marines in World War II Commemorative Series. Marine Corps Historical Center. Retrieved on January 17 2008. The battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Cape Gloucester, Saipan, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between U.S. Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army.
During the battle of Iwo Jima, photographer Joe Rosenthal took the famous photograph Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima of five Marines and one Navy Corpsman raising the American flag on Mt. Suribachi. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, who had come ashore earlier that day to observe the progress of the troops, said of the flag raising on Iwo Jima, "...the raising of that flag on Suribachi means a Marine Corps for the next five hundred years." The acts of the Marines during the war added to their already significant popular reputation. The USMC War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia was dedicated in 1954. By war\'s end, the Corps had grown to include six divisions, five air wings, and supporting troops totaling about 485,000. Nearly 87,000 Marines were casualties during World War II and 82 received the Medal of HonorMarine Corps History. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on January 17 2008. (including nearly 20,000 killed). 2,274 Marines were POWs {2,270 by the Japanese and 4 by the Germans}; 1,756 returned to the USA. 268 known to have died and 250 known to have been captured but otherwise unaccounted for and presumed to have died. See [1].
Despite Secretary Forrestal\'s prediction, the Corps faced an immediate institutional crisis following the war. Army generals pushing for a strengthened and reorganized defense establishment also attempted to fold the Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army. Drawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, the Marine Corps rebuffed such efforts to dismantle the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine Corps in the National Security Act of 1947.Krulak, Victor H. (1984). First To Fight: An Inside View of the U.S. Marine Corps. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-785-2. Chapter 7, The Marines\' Push Button 113–119 Shortly afterward, in 1952 the Douglas-Mansfield Bill afforded the Commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of Staff on matters relating to the Marines and established the structure of three divisions and air wings that remains today. This allowed the Corps to permanently maintain a division and air wing in the Far East and participate in various small wars in Southeast Asia—in the Tachen Islands, Taiwan, Laos, Thailand, and South Vietnam.
Marine lieutenant Baldomero Lopez scaling the seawall at Inchon.
The Korean War (1950–1953) saw the hastily formed Provisional Marine Brigade holding the defensive line at the Pusan Perimeter. To execute a flanking maneuver, General Douglas MacArthur called on Marine air and ground forces to make an amphibious landing at Inchon. The successful landing resulted in the collapse of North Korean lines and the pursuit of North Korean forces north near the Yalu River until the entrance of the People\'s Republic of China into the war. Chinese troops surrounded, surprised and overwhelmed the overextended and outnumbered American forces. However, unlike the Eighth Army, which retreated in disarray, the X Corps, which included the 1st Marine Division and the Army 7th Infantry Division, regrouped and inflicted heavy casualties during their fighting withdrawal to the coast. Now known as the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, it entered Marine lore as an example of toughness and resolve. Marines would continue a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953 armistice.Fehrenbach, T.R. (1994). This Kind of War: The Classic Korean War History. Brassey\'s. ISBN 1-57488-259-7. The Korean War saw the Corps expand from 75,000 regulars to a force, by the end of the conflict in 1953, of 261,000 Marines, most of whom were reservists. 30,544 Marines were killed or wounded during the war and 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor.Fast Facts on the Korean War. History Division, U.S. Marine Corps.
Operation Hastings: Marines on patrol
The Marine Corps served an important role in the Vietnam War taking part in such battles as Da Nang, Hue City, and Khe Sanh. Individuals from the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of South Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in a guerilla war against the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) and an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). Portions of the Corps were responsible for the less-known combined action program (CAC) that implemented unconventional techniques for counter-insurgency (COIN) and worked as military advisors to the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps.
Vietnam was the longest war for Marines; by its end, 13,091Official U.S. Navy figures number the USMC deaths at 13,091. This source provides a number of 14,837. U.S. Military Casualties in Southeast Asia. The Wall-USA (March 31, 1997). were killed in action, 51,392 were wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor were awarded. Casualties: U. S. Navy and Marine Corps Personnel Killed and Wounded in Wars, Conflicts, Terrorist Acts, and Other Hostile Incidents. Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy (August 7, 2006). Marines Awarded the Medal of Honor. United States Marine Corps. Due to policies concerning rotation, more Marines were deployed for service during Vietnam than World War II.Simmons, 247. Roughly 800,000 Marines served in Vietnam, as opposed to 600,000 in World War II. The USMC presence was withdrawn in 1971, and returned briefly in 1975 to evacuate Saigon and in an attempt to rescue the crew of the Mayagüez.Millet, Alan R. (1991). Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps. New York: Macmillan. While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detrimental low point in its service history caused by courts-martial and Non-Judicial Punishments related partially to increased Unauthorized Absences and Desertions during the war. Overhauling of the Corps began in the late 1970s when discharge policies for inadequate Marines relaxed, resulting in the removal of only the most delinquent. Once quality of new recruits improved, the Corps could focus on reforming the NCO Corps, a vital functioning part of its forces.
On October 19th, 1979 13 Marines lost their lives as a result of a fire at Camp Fuji, Japan. These Marines were on Combat Training Mission. The 13 Marines were from 2/4 81s & Dragons Platoons. Semper Fi After Vietnam, the Marines resumed their expeditionary role, participating in the 1980 Iran hostage rescue attempt Operation Eagle Claw, the invasion of Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) and the invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause). On October 23 1983, the Marine headquarters building in Beirut, Lebanon was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines and 21 other service members of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit were killed) and leading to the American withdrawal from the country. The year of 1990 saw Marines of the Joint Task Force Sharp Edge save thousands of lives by evacuating the British, French and American Nationals from the violence of the Liberian Civil War. During the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991), Marine task forces formed the initial core for Operation Desert Shield, while U.S. and Coalition troops mobilized, and later liberated Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm. U.S. Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia (1992–1995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore Hope II, and United Shield to provide humanitarian relief.The preannounced landing of U.S. Marines was witnessed by millions of U.S. primetime television viewers (PDF). \'United States Naval Aviation, 1910–1995\'. U.S. Navy. (PDF file, see 1992, December 9, p. 16.
Fighting in Fallujah during Operation Phantom Fury, November 2004
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks President George W. Bush announced a War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is "the defeat of al Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any nation that supports or harbors terrorists".Address to Congress. whitehouse. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. Since that time the United States Marine Corps, along with other military and federal agencies, has engaged in global operations including Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and other areas of the world, as part of that mission.
Marines and other U.S. forces began staging in Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as early as October, 2001 in preparation for the invasion of Afghanistan.CNN Transcript. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-04-27. The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were the first conventional forces into Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in November of 2001 when they seized an airfield outside of Khandahar.Marines land in Afghanistan. International Herald Tribune. Retrieved on 2007-04-27. Since then Marine battalions and squadrons have been rotating through, engaging Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces. In 2002, Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was stood up at Camp Lemonier to provide regional security.Fact Sheet - CJTF-HOA. Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. Despite transferring overall command to the U.S. Navy in 2006, the Marines have continued to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2007.USMC.mil - 26th MEU in HOA. United States Marine Corps. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
Most recently, the Marines have served prominently in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The I Marine Expeditionary Force, along with the Army\'s 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq.West, Bing; General Ray L. Smith (September 2003). The March Up: Taking Baghdad with the 1st Marine Division. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-80376-X. During the occupation of Iraq, Marines spearheaded both assaults on the city of Fallujah in April and November 2004, also known as Operation Phantom Fury.West, Bing (October 2005). No True Glory: A Frontline Account of the Battle for Fallujah. New York: Bantam Dell. ISBN 978-0-533-90402-7. Their time in Iraq has also courted controversy with the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident.Marines face charges in Haditha killings. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-04-27.8 Troops Charged In Death Of Iraqi. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-04-27. They currently continue to operate throughout Iraq.
The Department of the Navy, led by the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV), administers both the Marine Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine officer is the Commandant of the Marine Corps, responsible for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Marine Corps so that it is ready for operation under the command of the Unified Combatant Commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four principal subdivisions: Headquarters Marine Corps (HQMC), the Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the Marine Forces Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR).
The Operating Forces are further subdivided into three categories: Marine Corps Forces (MARFOR) assigned to unified commands, Marine Corps Security Forces guarding high-risk naval installations, and Marine Corps Security Guard detachments at American embassies. Under the "Forces for Unified Commands" memo, Marine Corps Forces are assigned to each of the regional unified commands at the discretion of the Secretary of Defense and with the approval of the President. Since 1991, the Marine Corps has maintained component headquarters at each of the regional unified combatant commands.GlobalSecurity.org. Marine Corps Organization. GlobalSecurity.org. Marine Corps Forces are further divided into Marine Forces Command (MARFORCOM) and Marine Forces Pacific (MARFORPAC), each headed by a Lieutenant General. MARFORCOM has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC has operational control of the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force.
The Supporting Establishment includes Marine Corps Combat Development Command (MCCDC), Marine Corps Recruit Depots, Marine Corps Logistics Command, Marine bases and air stations, Recruiting Command, and the Marine Band.
The Marine Corps combat capabilities in some ways overlap those of the U.S. Army, the latter having historically viewed the Corps as encroaching on the Army\'s capabilities and competing for funding, missions, and renown. The attitude dates back to the founding of the Continental Marines, when General George Washington refused to allow the initial Marine battalions to be drawn from among his Continental Army. Most significantly, in the aftermath of World War II, Army efforts to restructure the American defense establishment included the dissolution of the Corps and the folding of its capabilities into the other services. Leading this movement were such prominent Army officers as General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall.
The Marine Corps is a partner service with the U.S. Navy under the Department of the Navy. As a result, the Navy and Marine Corps have a close relationship, more so than with other branches of the United States military. Whitepapers and promotional literature of the 20th century have commonly used the phrase "Navy-Marine Corps Team".Clark, Adm. Vern (October 2002). "Sea Power 21". Proceedings (October 2002). Naval Institute Press. Retrieved on 2006-07-28. Lt. Col. James Kuhn. Enduring Freedom [Film]. Department of the Navy. Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps, heads of their respective services, report directly to the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV), a civilian who heads the Department of the Navy.
Cooperation between the two services begins with the training and instruction of Marines. The Corps receives a significant portion of its officers from the United States Naval Academy and Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC). NROTC are staffed by Marines alongside naval officers. Marine Corps drill instructors contribute to training of naval officers in the Navy\'s Officer Candidate School. Marine aviators are trained in the Naval Aviation training pipeline.
Training alongside each other is viewed as critical, as the Navy provides transport, logistical, and combat support to put Marine units into the fight. Navy aircraft carriers typically deploy with a Marine F/A-18 Hornet squadron alongside Navy squadrons. Since every Marine is a combatant, the Marines do not recruit or train chaplains or medical personnel; officers and enlisted sailors from the Navy fill these roles. Some of these sailors, particularly Hospital Corpsmen, generally wear Marine uniforms emblazoned with Navy insignia and markings in order to be noticeably distinct to compatriots but generally indistinguishable to enemies. Conversely, the Marine Corps is responsible for conducting land operations to support naval campaigns, including the seizure of naval and air bases. Both services operate a network security team in conjunction.
During training, every Marine officer and enlisted man learns the traditional naval nomenclature for common features of buildings, ships and bases. For example, even on land bases, Marines refer to stairs as "ladders", walls are "bulkheads", ceilings are "overheads", the floor is the "deck", doors are "hatches", and being on a Marine base is referred to as "being aboard" MCB/MCAS/MCRD and so forth. Headgear is always referred to as one\'s "cover", as in the Navy. Marines drill on the "parade deck", never the parade ground. Marines stand "watches", while soldiers pull guard duty. Like sailors and Naval officers, Marines never salute when not wearing their covers--rather, Marines come to strict attention when addressing or responding to a superior, and salutes are not exchanged.
Finally, there are several traditional connections between the two services. Marine Corps Medal of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of the award; Marines also may be awarded the Navy Cross. The Navy\'s Blue Angels flight demonstration team includes at least one Marine pilot, and is supported by a Marine C-130 Hercules aircraft. In cities with Navy and Marine Corps presence, social activities are often conducted together, for example with the Navy/Marine ball in San Diego.
Today, the basic framework for deployable Marine units is the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), a flexible structure of varying size. A MAGTF integrates a ground combat element (GCE), an air combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE) MARADMIN 562/06. Renaming of the Combat Service Support Element (CSSE) to the Logistics Combat Element (LCE). US Marine Corps. under a common command element (CE). A MAGTF can operate independently or as part of a larger coalition. It is a temporary organization formed for a specific mission and dissolved after completion of that mission. The MAGTF structure reflects a strong tradition in the Corps towards self-sufficiency and a commitment to combined arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, time-sensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as well has led to a wariness of overreliance on its sister services, and towards joint operations in general.
A MAGTF varies in size from the smallest, a Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), based around a reinforced infantry battalion and a composite squadron, up to the largest, a Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), which ties together a Division, an Air Wing, and a Logistics Group under a MEF Headquarters Group. There are usually three MEUs assigned to each of the Navy\'s Atlantic and Pacific Fleets, with a seventh MEU based on Okinawa. While one MEU is on deployment, one MEU is training to deploy and one is standing down, resting its Marines and refitting (with the exception of the 31st MEU(SOC) based in Okinawa, which is always forward deployed and spends the majority of time at sea, only rotating out the air and ground units which make up the Aviation Command Element and the Ground Combat Element). Each MEU is rated as capable of performing special operations.Prepared for the Larger Conflicts: Capable of specializing for the unique conflict. Other Marine Expeditionary Forces. United States Marine Corps. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
The three Marine Expeditionary Forces are:
Although the notion of a Marine special forces contribution to the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the founding of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the Marine Corps. Then-Commandant Paul X. Kelley expressed the popular belief that Marines should support Marines, and that the Corps should not fund a special warfare capability that would not support Marine operations.Smith, Jr., W Thomas (2005). Marines, Navy SEALs Forge New Special Operations Team; An exclusive interview with U.S. Navy SEAL Commander Mark Divine. Military.com. Retrieved on 2006-07-31. However, much of the resistance from within the Corps dissipated when Marine leaders watched the Corps\' 15th and 26th MEU(SOC)s "sit on the sidelines" during the very early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom while other special operations units actively engaged in operations in Afghanistan.Priddy, Maj. Wade (June 2006). "Marine Detachment 1: Opening the door for a Marine force contribution to USSOCom". Marine Corps Gazette (June 2006): 58–59. Marine Corps Association. After a three-year development period, the Corps agreed in 2006 to supply a 2,600-strong unit, Marine Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC), which would answer directly to USSOCOM.Graham, Bradley. "Elite Marine Unit to Help Fight Terrorism, Force to Be Part of Special Operations", Washington Post, 2005-11-2.
Gen. James T. Conway, 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is the highest-ranking officer of the Marine Corps, though he may not be the senior officer in time and grade. He is both the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very high esteem among Marines. The commandant has the U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to man, train, and equip the Marine Corps. He does not serve as a direct battlefield commander. The Commandant is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and reports to the Secretary of the Navy.Estes (1986), p. 60
The current and 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps is General James T. Conway; his nomination was confirmed by the Senate on August 2 2006. Conway was then promoted to General, and assumed command as the 34th Commandant of the Marine Corps on November 13 2006."Conway confirmed as new commandant", Marine Corps Times, August 3 2006. Retrieved on 2006-08-03. As of October 2007, Marine General James E. Cartwright (Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) is senior in terms of time in grade to the commandant.Kreisher, Otto. "Pendleton\'s Hagee seen as crossroads commandant", San Diego Union-Tribune, 9-6-2002.
